Start with the Figure, Not the Label

Most stained glass in UK churches is Victorian or later, but medieval fragments survive in cathedrals, parish churches and museum collections. Saints appear in side windows, Lady chapels, chancel openings and rood screens. They were never meant to be a quiz. They were a visual sermon for people who could not read, and their makers repeated certain clues so that a figure could be recognised across a crowded church.

Begin with the central figure rather than the inscription. Inscriptions are often missing, faded or in Latin. Look at the hands first, then the feet, then the head. Ask what the figure is holding, what they are wearing, what they are standing on, and who or what is beside them. A saint’s attribute is a visual shorthand: a key, an arrow, a wheel, a sword, a lily. Once you spot the attribute, the name often follows.

The Essential Attributes: Keys, Arrows, Wheels and More

Some attributes are so common in British churches that they are worth learning first. They work like a dictionary of holy figures, and they usually appear alongside a book, a palm branch or a crown of martyrdom.

• St Peter — keys, often crossed or a single large key, sometimes with a book and a cockerel nearby.
• St Paul — a sword and a book, usually with a beard and a receding hairline.
• St Catherine of Alexandria — a spiked wheel, sometimes broken, with a book or a sword.
• St Sebastian — arrows, often tied to a tree or pillar, shown as a young bearded man.
• St Lawrence — a gridiron, the iron frame on which he was martyred.
• St Andrew — a saltire, the diagonal cross of Scotland.
• St Stephen — stones, sometimes held in a cloth or on his head.
• St George — a dragon at his feet, often in armour, sometimes on horseback.
• St Michael — scales, a sword and sometimes a dragon, usually winged.
• St John the Baptist — a lamb, rough camel-hair clothing, or a shell for baptism.

Notice how one figure can carry several attributes. A bishop with a wheel and a book is almost certainly Catherine, not a bishop. A knight with a dragon is George. A winged figure with scales is Michael. The object does the work that a label would do today.

Dress, Gesture and Companions

Clothing tells you as much as objects. Bishops wear a mitre and carry a crozier. Monks and friars wear habits. Kings wear crowns; queens wear veils and crowns. Knights wear armour. Hermits wear rough cloaks. The Virgin Mary usually wears blue, often with a lily or a rosary. Christ may have a cross-shaped halo, while other saints have plain golden halos.

Gesture matters too. A raised hand blesses. Hands joined in prayer suggest devotion. A palm branch signals a martyr. A book may be a Gospel, a rule or a record of faith, so do not assume every book means the same thing. Look for wounds: an arrow in the side, a sword in the head, stones at the feet. These are not gruesome details for their own sake; they are the evidence of martyrdom, and they help distinguish one saint from another.

Companions are especially useful. The four Evangelists have symbols: Matthew an angel, Mark a lion, Luke an ox, John an eagle. A lamb points to John the Baptist or to Christ. A dragon points to George, Michael or Margaret. An eagle and a chalice with a serpent point to John the Evangelist. A scallop shell points to James the Great and the pilgrim roads that led to Santiago de Compostela.

UK Case Studies: Where to Look and What You Will See

In many English parish churches, St Peter and St Paul flank the east window or the chancel arch. Peter holds keys; Paul holds a sword. Their pairing recalls their shared commemoration and their different roles. In East Anglia, medieval rood screens often carry panels of saints in rows, and St Catherine with her wheel is a frequent figure. In war memorial windows, St George appears in armour with a dragon, a powerful symbol of national and spiritual defence.

Cathedrals offer richer programmes. At Canterbury, stained glass and sculpture often recall Thomas Becket, recognisable by his archbishop’s pallium and the sword wound in his head. At St Albans, St Alban may appear with a sword and a crown of martyrdom. At Durham, St Cuthbert is often shown as a bishop with a pastoral staff, sometimes with an otter or a stag nearby. In Welsh churches, St David may carry a dove on his shoulder; in Irish-linked windows, St Patrick may hold a shamrock. These local saints remind you that UK church heritage is not one story but many.

Common Confusions and How to Resolve Them

Two St Johns cause the most trouble. John the Baptist wears rough clothing and points to a lamb; John the Evangelist holds a book, a chalice or an eagle. Two St Jameses are also easily mixed. James the Great carries a scallop shell and wears a pilgrim hat; James the Less carries a fuller’s club. St Sebastian and St Edmund both appear with arrows, but Edmund is a crowned king, while Sebastian is a young man tied to a tree.

If a figure holds a sword and a book, think of Paul. If a figure holds a sword and a palm, it could be almost any martyr, so look for clothing and context. A woman with a wheel is Catherine. A woman with a lily may be the Virgin Mary, St Agnes or St Clare. A bishop with a head wound is Thomas Becket. A figure carrying his own head is St Denis, a rare but memorable sight. Context resolves most puzzles: the dedication of the church, the position of the window, the neighbouring saints and the donor’s coat of arms all narrow the field.

Build Your Visual Literacy Slowly

Start with five saints: Peter, Paul, Catherine, George and Michael. Learn their attributes until they feel familiar. Then add John the Baptist, John the Evangelist, Andrew, James and Sebastian. Carry binoculars if you can, because glass is high and detail is small. Sketch what you see, even roughly. Note the colour of robes, the shape of a halo, the object in a hand. Read the church guidebook, and ask a welcomer or steward if they know the window’s story. Compare one window with another in the same building; glassmakers often reused patterns and poses.

Stained glass rewards slow looking. The light changes through the day, and a figure that seems obscure at noon may become clear in late afternoon. You do not need to become a specialist. You only need to notice. Next time you see a wheel, you will think of Catherine; keys, of Peter; arrows, of Sebastian or Edmund. The building will become more legible, more human and more full of stories.